Levels

Lab

The physics

Flux counts the field lines that pass through a surface. For a flat window, only the field's part along its normal counts.

Φ = E A cos θ

Gauss's law: the net flux out of a closed surface is qin/ε0. Only the charge inside counts.

Φnet = qin / ε0    ε0 = 8.85 × 10⁻¹² C²/(N m²)

Lines leaving count plus. Lines entering count minus. A charge outside sends its lines in and out again, so it adds nothing.

For a long charged wire, only the length inside the surface counts.

Φ = λ Linside / ε0